Pengertian E-Commerce,Penjelasan dan definisi Ecommerce

e-commerce /Electronic commerce adalah penyebaran, pembelian, penjualan, pemasaran barang dan jasa melalui sistem elektronik seperti internet atau televisi, www, atau jaringan komputer lainnya.

E-dagang dapat melibatkan transfer dana elektronik, pertukaran data elektronik, sistem manajemen inventori otomatis, dan sistem pengumpulan data otomatis.
Industri teknologi informasi melihat kegiatan e-dagang ini sebagai aplikasi dan penerapan dari e-bisnis (e-business) yang berkaitan dengan transaksi komersial, seperti: transfer dana secara elektronik, SCM (supply chain management), e-pemasaran (e-marketing), atau pemasaran online (online marketing), pemrosesan transaksi online (online transaction processing), pertukaran data elektronik (electronic data interchange /EDI), dll.
E-dagang atau e-commerce merupakan bagian dari e-business, di mana cakupan e-business lebih luas, tidak hanya sekedar perniagaan tetapi mencakup juga pengkolaborasian mitra bisnis, pelayanan nasabah, lowongan pekerjaan dll. Selain teknologi jaringan www, e-dagang juga memerlukan teknologi basisdata atau pangkalan data (databases), e-surat atau surat elektronik (e-mail), dan bentuk teknologi non komputer yang lain seperti halnya sistem pengiriman barang, dan alat pembayaran untuk e-dagang ini.
E-dagang pertama kali diperkenalkan pada tahun 1994 pada saat pertama kali banner-elektronik dipakai untuk tujuan promosi dan periklanan di suatu halaman-web (website). Menurut Riset Forrester, perdagangan elektronik menghasilkan penjualan seharga AS$12,2 milyar pada 2003. Menurut laporan yang lain pada bulan oktober 2006 yang lalu, pendapatan ritel online yang bersifat non-travel di Amerika Serikat diramalkan akan mencapai seperempat trilyun dolar US pada tahun 2011.

Istilah "perdagangan elektronik" telah berubah sejalan dengan waktu. Awalnya, perdagangan elektronik berarti pemanfaatan transaksi komersial, seperti penggunaan EDI untuk mengirim dokumen komersial seperti pesanan pembelian atau invoice secara elektronik.

Kemudian dia berkembang menjadi suatu aktivitas yang mempunya istilah yang lebih tepat "perdagangan web" - pembelian barang dan jasa melalui World Wide Web melalui server aman (HTTPS), protokol server khusus yang menggunakan enkripsi untuk merahasiakan data penting pelanggan.

Pada awalnya ketika web mulai terkenal di masyarakat pada 1994, banyak jurnalis memperkirakan bahwa e-commerce akan menjadi sebuah sektor ekonomi baru. Namun, baru sekitar empat tahun kemudian protokol aman seperti HTTPS memasuki tahap matang dan banyak digunakan. Antara 1998 dan 2000 banyak bisnis di AS dan Eropa mengembangkan situs web perdagangan ini.

Faktor kunci sukses dalam e-commerce

Dalam banyak kasus, sebuah perusahaan e-commerce bisa bertahan tidak hanya mengandalkan kekuatan produk saja, tapi dengan adanya tim manajemen yang handal, pengiriman yang tepat waktu, pelayanan yang bagus, struktur organisasi bisnis yang baik, jaringan infrastruktur dan keamanan, desain situs web yang bagus, beberapa faktor yang termasuk:
Menyediakan harga kompetitif
Menyediakan jasa pembelian yang tanggap, cepat, dan ramah.
Menyediakan informasi barang dan jasa yang lengkap dan jelas.
Menyediakan banyak bonus seperti kupon, penawaran istimewa, dan diskon.
Memberikan perhatian khusus seperti usulan pembelian.
Menyediakan rasa komunitas untuk berdiskusi, masukan dari pelanggan, dan lain-lain.
Mempermudah kegiatan perdagangan

Masalah e-commerce

Penipuan dengan cara pencurian identitas dan membohongi pelanggan.
Hukum yang kurang berkembang dalam bidang e-commerce ini.

Aplikasi bisnis

Beberapa aplikasi umum yang berhubungan dengan e-commerce adalah:

- E-mail dan Messaging
- Content Management Systems
- Dokumen, spreadsheet, database

- Akunting dan sistem keuangan
Informasi pengiriman dan pemesanan

- Pelaporan informasi dari klien dan enterprise

- Sistem pembayaran domestik dan internasional
-Newsgroup
- On-line Shopping
- Conferencing
- Online Banking

sumber :  http://handzmentallist.blogspot.com/2010/04/pengertian-e-commercepenjelasan-dan.html 

NOUN CLAUSE & CONJUNCTION

NOUN CLAUSE

A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the English words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. A clause is a noun clause if a pronoun (he, she, it, or they) could be substituted for it.

Examples:

• I know who said that. (I know it.) (The dependent clause serves as the object of the main-clause verb "know".)
• Whoever made that assertion is wrong. (He/she is wrong.) (The dependent clause serves as the subject of the main clause.)

Sometimes in English a noun clause is used without the introductory word.

Example:

• I know that he is here.
• I know he is here. (without "that")

In some cases, use of the introductory word, though grammatically correct, may sound cumbersome in English, and the introductory word may be omitted.

Example:

• I think that it is pretty. (less common)
• I think it is pretty. (more common)

Exercise

1.       Last week, our cat gave birth to a litter of kittens, but we didn't know where________.
a. is our cat
b. our cat was
c. our cat is
d. was our cat

2.        Now, our cat is home again, and we can't believe how many _______________.
a. kittens does she have
b. kittens has she
c. she has kittens
d. kittens she has

3.        Can you imagine ________ ?
a. how cute they are
b. how cute are they
c. how they are cute
d. are they cute

4.        The kittens are so noisy that I can hardly hear what ________ .
a. are saying you
b. that you are saying
c. are saying you
d. you are saying

5.        My husband said __________ try to keep them all.
a. don't we
b. that shouldn't we
c. that we shouldn't
d. that we don't

Answer

1.      B

2.      D

3.      A

4.      D

5.      C

Conjunction (grammar)

In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated CONJ or CNJ) is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each language. In general, a conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle, and it may or may not stand between the items it conjoins.

The definition may also be extended to idiomatic phrases that behave as a unit with the same function as a single-word conjunction (as well as, provided that, etc.).

Many students are taught that certain conjunctions (such as "and", "but", and "so") should not begin sentences, although authorities such as the Chicago Manual of Style proclaim that this teaching has "no historical or grammatical foundation".

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join two or more items of equal syntactic importance, such as words, main clauses, or sentences. In English the mnemonic acronym FANBOYS can be used to remember the coordinators for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. These are not the only coordinating conjunctions; various others are used, including "and nor" (British), "but nor" (British), "or nor" (British), "neither" ("They don't gamble; neither do they smoke"), "no more" ("They don't gamble; no more do they smoke"), and "only" ("I would go, only I don't have time").

Here are some examples of coordinating conjunctions in English and what they do:

• For presents a reason ("He is gambling with his health, for he has been smoking far too long.").
• And presents non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s) ("They gamble, and they smoke.").
• Nor presents a non-contrasting negative idea ("They do not gamble, nor do they smoke.").
• But presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.").
• Or presents an alternative item or idea ("Every day, they gamble or they smoke.").
• Yet presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.").
• So presents a consequence ("He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.").

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence. There are six different pairs of correlative conjunctions:

1) either...or

2) not only...but also

3) neither...nor (or increasingly neither...or)

4) both...and

5) whether...or

6) just as...so

Examples:

• You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.
• Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.
• Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
• Both the cross country team and the swimming team are doing well.
• Whether you stay or go is your decision.
• Just as many Americans love football, so many Canadians love ice hockey.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that conjoin an independent clause and a dependent clause. The most common subordinating conjunctions in the English language include after, although, as, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, if, in order that, since, so, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, and while. Complementizers can be considered to be special subordinating conjunctions that introduce complement clauses (e.g., "I wonder whether he'll be late. I hope that he'll be on time"). Some subordinating conjunctions (until and while), when used to introduce a phrase instead of a full clause, become prepositions with identical meanings.

In many verb-final languages, subordinate clauses must precede the main clause on which they depend. The equivalents to the subordinating conjunctions of non-verb-final languages such as English are either

• clause-final conjunctions (e.g. in Japanese), or
• suffixes attached to the verb and not separate words

Such languages in fact often lack conjunctions as a part of speech because:

1. the form of the verb used is formally nominalised and cannot occur in an independent clause
2. the clause-final conjunction or suffix attached to the verb is actually formally a marker of case and is also used on nouns to indicate certain functions. In this sense, the subordinate clauses of these languages have much in common with postpositional phrases.

In other West-Germanic languages like German or Dutch, the word order after a subordinating conjunction is different from the one in an independent clause, e.g. in Dutch want (for) is coordinating, but omdat (because) is subordinating. The clause after the coordinating conjunction has normal word order, but the clause after the subordinating conjunction has verb-final word order. Compare:

Hij gaat naar huis, want hij is ziek. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")

Hij gaat naar huis, omdat hij ziek is. ("He goes home because he is ill.")

Similarly, in German, "denn" (for) is coordinating, but "weil" (because) is subordinating:

Er geht nach Hause, denn er ist krank. ("He goes home, for he is ill.")

Er geht nach Hause, weil er krank ist. ("He goes home because he is ill.")

EXERCISE

1.      Receptionists must be able to relay information ______ pass messages accurately.

(A) or

(B) and

(C) but

(D) because

2.      I did not go to the show ______ I had already seen it.

(A) until

(B) because

(C) so

(D) but                  

3.      Mary is a member of the Historical Society ______ the Literary Society.     (A) as

(B) or

(C) and

(D) but

4.      Read over your answers ______ correct all mistakes before you pass them up. (A) or

(B) and

(C) because

(D) while                  

5.      Keep the food covered ______ the flies will contaminate it.

(A) or

(B) and

(C) until

(D) though

 

ANSWER

1B    2B    3C    4B    5A

Source

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunction_%28grammar%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noun_clause#Noun_clause

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES & DIRECT-INDERECT SPEECH

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Adverb and adverbial are similiar but not the same. Thought they share the same modifying function, their characters are different. An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. In other words, it contains a subject (explicit or implied) and a predicate, and it modifies a verb.

• I saw Joe when I went to the store. (explicit subject I)
• He sat quietly in order to appear polite. (implied subject he)

According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In these functions they are like adverbial phrases, but due to their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and Quirk,1990):

• We left after the speeches ended. (adverbial clause)
• We left after the end of the speeches. (adverbial prepositional phrase)

Contrast adverbial clauses with adverbial phrases, which do not contain a clause.

• I like to fly kites for fun.

Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. For example:

• Hardly had I reached the station when the train started to leave the platform.

The adverbial clause in this sentence is "when the train started to leave the platform" because it is a subordinate clause and because it has the trigger word (subordinate conjunction) "when".

Kinds of adverbial clauses

kind of clause	common conjunctions	Function	example
time clauses	when, before, after, since, while, as, as long as, until,till, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "when?"); hardly, scarcely, no sooner, etc.	These clauses are used to say when something happens by referring to a period of time or to another event.	Her goldfish died when she was young.
conditional clauses	if, unless, lest	These clauses are used to talk about a possible or counterfactual situation and its consequences.	If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards.
purpose clauses	in order to, so that, in order that	These clauses are used to indicate the purpose of an action.	They had to take some of his land so that they could extend the churchyard.
reason clauses	because, since, as, given	These clauses are used to indicate the reason for something.	I couldn't feel anger against him because I liked him too much.
result clauses	so...that	These clauses are used to indicate the result of something.	My suitcase had become so damaged on the journey home that the lid would not stay closed.
concessive clauses	although, though, while	These clauses are used to make two statements, one of which contrasts with the other or makes it seem surprising.	I used to read a lot although I don't get much time for books now.
place clauses	where, wherever, anywhere, everywhere, etc. (conjunctions that answer the question "where?")	These clauses are used to talk about the location or position of something.	He said he was happy where he was.
clauses of manner	as, like, the way	These clauses are used to talk about someone's behaviour or the way something is done.	I was never allowed to do things as I wanted to do them.

in grammar an adverbial is a word (an adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial phrase or an adverbial clause) that modifies or tells us something about the sentence or the verb. The word adverbial is also used as an adjective, meaning 'having the same function as an adverb'.

 

EXERCISE

Combine the following sentences using adverb clauses at the beginning of the sentence.

1. Frank started medical training. He drove a forklift for a living.
2. The rains had started the mud slides. The homes were not safe to live in.
3. Older people love to sit in the park. They feed the birds and visit.
4. I enjoyed camping out. I was much younger.
5. Joe recognised the man. The man had stopped his car to help.

Answer

1.      Before Frank started medical training, he drove a forklift for a living.

2.      Because the rains had started the mud slides, the homes were not safe to live in.

3.      While they feed the birds and visit, older people love to sit in the park.

4.      When I was much younger, I enjoyed camping out.

5.      After the man had stopped his car to help, Joe recognised him.

Direct-Indirect speech

Direct speech, Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)

Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For example:

She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."

or

"Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

Indirect speech, also called reported speech or indirect discourse, is a means of expressing the content of statements, questions or other utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech. For example, He said "I'm coming" is direct speech, whereas He said he was coming is indirect speech.

In terms of grammar, indirect speech often makes use of certain syntactic structures such as content clauses ("that" clauses, such as (that) he was coming), and sometimes infinitive phrases. References to questions in indirect speech frequently take the form of interrogative content clauses, also called indirect questions (such as whether he was coming).

In indirect speech certain grammatical categories are changed relative to the words of the original sentence. For example, person may change as a result of a change of speaker or listener (as I changes to he in the example above). In some languages, including English, the tense of verbs is often changed – this is often called sequence of tenses. Some languages have a change of mood: Latin switches from indicative to the infinitive (for statements) or the subjunctive (for questions).

When written, indirect speech is not normally enclosed in quotation marks or any similar typographical devices for indicating that a direct quotation is being made. However such devices are sometimes used to indicate that the indirect speech is a faithful quotation of someone's words (with additional devices such as square brackets and ellipses to indicate deviations or omissions from those words), as in He informed us that "after dinner [he] would like to make an announcement".

In indirect speech, words generally have referents appropriate to the context in which the act of reporting takes place, rather than that in which the speech act being reported took place (or is conceived as taking place). The two acts often differ in reference point (origo) – the point in time and place and the person speaking – and also in the person being addressed and the linguistic context. Thus when a sentence involves words or forms whose referents depend on these circumstances, they are liable to change when the sentence is put into indirect speech. In particular this commonly affects:

• personal pronouns, such as I, you, he, we, and the corresponding verb forms (in pro-drop languages the meaning of the pronoun may be conveyed solely by verb inflection).
• demonstratives, such as this, that.
• phrases of relative time or place such as now, yesterday, here.

There may also be a change of tense or other modifications to the form of the verb, such as change of mood. These changes depend on the grammar of the language in question – some examples can be found in the following sections.

It should be noted that indirect speech need not refer to a speech act that has actually taken place; it may concern future or hypothetical discourse; for example, If you ask him why he's wearing that hat, he'll tell you to mind your own business. Also, even when referring to a known completed speech act, the reporter may deviate freely from the words that were actually used, provided the meaning is retained. This contrasts with direct speech, where there is an expectation that the original words will be reproduced exactly.

Examples

Some examples of changes in form in indirect speech in English are given below. See also Sequence of tenses.

• It is raining hard.

She says that it is raining hard. (no change)

She said that it was raining hard. (change of tense when the main verb is past tense)

• I have painted the ceiling blue.

He said that he had painted the ceiling blue. (change of person and tense)

• I will come to your party tomorrow.

I said that I would come to his party the next day. (change of tense, person and time expression)

• How do people manage to live in this city?

I asked him how people managed to live in that city. (change of tense and question syntax, and of demonstrative)

• Please leave the room.

I asked them to leave the room. (use of infinitive phrase)

The tense changes illustrated above (also called backshifting), which occur because the main verb ("said", "asked") is in the past tense, are not obligatory when the situation described is still valid.

• Ed is a bore.

She said that Ed was/is a bore.(optional change of tense)

• I am coming over to watch television.

Benjamin said that he is/was coming over to watch television. (change of person, optional change of tense)

In these sentences the original tense can be used provided that it remains equally valid at the time of the reporting of the statement (Ed is still considered a bore; Benjamin is still expected to come over).

Exercise

Change the following sentences from direct speech to reported speech  :

1.      David : "There is an excellent band playing later on." 

2.      Christine : "I saw Amy at the bank on Monday."

3.      The driver : "I'm going to turn right at the traffic lights."

4.      The doctor : "I'll send you the results as soon as they arrive."

5.      Jack :  "I'll lend you my grammar book if you think it will help.

Answer

1.      David said there was an excellent bank playing later on.

2.      Christine said she had seen Amy at the bank on Monday.

3.      The driver said he was going to turn right at the traffic lights.

4.      The doctor said he would send me/us the results as soon as they arrived.

5.      Jack said he would lend me his grammar book if I thought it would help.

Source

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverbial_clause

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_speech